Journal articles: 'Authors, 20th century' – Grafiati (2024)

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Lithuanian authors, authors abroad, and artists have presented Lithuanian folk clothes in their works. However, the oldest examples of these representations are not very reliable, because the authors painted them according to the descriptions of other people or copied works among each other. In the 20th century, the national costume of Lithuania changed considerably. Attention was not given to ethnographic regional peculiarities; instead, similar materials were chosen without any analysis. This article performs a comparative analysis of folk (the 19th century to the first half of the 20th century) and national (the second half of the 20th century) Lithuanian costumes to establish signs of cultural pollution and remaining authenticity. Over 500 articles of clothing with different purposes are collected from Lithuanian museums. Fabric parameters, such as raw materials, weaving technique, weave, pattern, decoration elements, etc., are established. The research results show that authentic folk clothes of the 19th century differ from the national costume of the second half of the 20th century in their cut, decoration, and patterns. No differences between ethnographic regions survived in the national costumes. Thus, at present, we must preserve our tangible heritage and re-create, as authentically as possible, national costume for folk songs and dance ensembles, folk restaurants, and rural tourism homesteads.

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Biographies and Pen-Sketches are two separate branches and lots of these two are available in Urdu Literature as well as writings about these two categories but this article is an effort to find sketches of personalities related to the authors of biographies without whom the author's personality cant be revealed fully. These people may be the author's relatives, friends, peers, observers and other persons who has been with him/her at various stages of author's life. Amongst them may be their parents, children, spouse and other relatives as well as other in the same profession. A good biographer takes are of all the aspects, requirements and dimensions from start to end of an autobiography. A person is central to an autobiography can't be highlighted completely unless different aspects of his/her life are described with reference to other related people. This article focuses on the personalities around the central-to-a-biograpgy person and describes them in the light of various biographies in which he/she is talked about. To support this argument, examples are also taken from the biographies written after the selected biography so that it can be proved that biographers can also tell the importance of presented sketches of other personalities. Although these sketches are not written with any such plan, as compared to formal pen sketches, even then these can be considered important and complete to some extent and are comparable to pen sketches.

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The 20th century offers us a wealth of literary authors. The Spanish poets of the 20th century that usually come to mind are mainly male due to the fact that the female poets never received proper recognition and were ignored for many years. The historical events of the 20th century could have ceasedthe literary works of the Spanish authors. However, instead, the Spanish utilized the poetry of protest as a means of rebelling towards their social reality. Not only male poets but also women were extremely prolific in their craft. First during the Civil War and after during the thirty six years of dictatorship that followed in spite of the hardships, censorship and vigorous opposition. A few of these women are Carmen Conde, Rosa Chacel, Ernestina de Champourcin and others. This research studies thecontribution of a few outstanding women poets to the 20th century Spanish literature and language.

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The authors analyze the developments in the world economy during the second half of the 20th century and the first five years of the 21st century. Based on the statistical data published in the editions of international organizations - primarily UN, IMF and WTO, they explain the causes of recession in the world economy at the beginning of this century after it achieved an impressive growth in the second half of the 20th century. The authors also point to the factors that contributed to the accelerated recovery of the world economy and world trade in 2004 and 2005.

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In contemporary Mongolia democracy is considered to be the main modern criterion of the political Modernity, which distinguishes socially «developed» countries from «backward» ones. Mature democracy is supposed to be the most important achievements of Mongolia after two decades of post-socialism. This phenomenon can be explained in different ways. Some authors appeal to the historical civilizational and religious factors, which identified «the predisposition» of the Mongols to democratic values. Others tend to find the answer to the question in the politics of Mongolian reformists, who adopted effective resolution procedures. And still others pay great attention to the external factor towards Mongolia, stimulating the country to democratization.

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The paper presents analysis of historiosophical themes, images and motifs reflecting the Egyptian culture in Russian literature of the 19th–20th centuries. They were popular among the authors of the early 20th century not only because of interest in artifacts found in the 19th century but also — and first of all — as part of a significant metaphor ‘Pre-revolutionary / Post-revolutionary Russia VS. Egypt’. There is shown the process of creating this comparison being much later than the ‘Russia VS. Europe’ paradigm in the context of the ‘Myth of St. Petersburg’, which included elements of the Egyptian theme (Sphinxes of the Neva) by the 20th century.

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The editor of ANTIQUITY remembers travelling, as a child, on the main A1 highway to see relatives in southeast England, watching the banks of sharp-nosed Bloodhound missiles ranged close by the road – pointing east, to meet incoming Soviet bombers. The obsolete monuments of the Cold War, and before that of the Second World War, are history now, famously the Berlin Wall (Baker 1993 in ANTIQUITY). Many, like the concrete runways of the airfields, are so solidly built they are not lightly removed. These remains of England's 20th-century defence heritage are not well understood. However, and contrary to popular belief, they do have a large documentation; and it is this, the authors argue, that should form the basis for systematic review.

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Studying the history of private-public partnership is still relevant for the discussion on modernizing education. In the early 20th century, it was common practice to attract private capital to solve financial problems associated with the work of educational institutions in Russia, which opened the way for using new forms of organizing the educational process. The excursion method became a groundbreaking phenomenon in the pedagogical system. Studying the history of the application of this method in regional educational institutions is of interest from the perspective of modernization of the educational process and the development of educational tourism. The authors aimed to study the practice of using the excursion method in educational institutions of Tver and determine the role of the state and public figures in organizing excursions for students from outside of Russian metropolitan areas. The authors apply the local history method that allows them to link the processes that take place in the capitals and the regions in the interdisciplinary field and highlight the regional features of modernizing the education system. Unpublished archival records are used in the article. The novelty of the study consists in the reconstruction of educational regional tourist-excursive practices of the early 20th century in the case study of Tver. The authors identify the mechanisms of the private-public partnership in the solution of organizational and financial problems of arranging excursion trips. The significance of individual public figures’ funds when arranging long excursion trips is discovered.

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Many ingenious mechanical methods were used by hydrographic surveyors for measuring the depth of water in the early part of the 20th Century. These were superseded by echo-sounding and sonar techniques in the later decades. Relatively few of the mechanical methods were used by merchant ships but, in the years before radar and satellite navigation, they, and the increasingly popular echo sounder, had a useful place in the navigator's armoury of navigation aids. This paper is not intended to provide a detailed description of the development of sounding devices. Sections 1 to 5 simply outline the principles of the sounding devices with which the authors were familiar during their time at sea. In Sections 6 to 9 the authors recount their anecdotal experiences of the way in which they, personally, used depth measuring devices during the middle years of the 20th century.

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This article examines ideas about the Earth's magnetic poles up to the early 20th century. I first examine the quickening interest in Earth magnetism during the 16th and 17th centuries and lay out some parameters of discourse regarding the magnetic poles during the Scientific Revolution. Primary figures discussed include Robert Norman, William Gilbert, and Edmond Halley. I then discuss the efforts to understand the magnetic poles that came with the revival of interest in Earth magnetism in the 19th century. The central authors in this period were Christopher Hansteen, Carl Friedrich Gauss, and Edward Sabine. I omit most 20th-century events, as they are too extensive and require separate treatment. The discussion ends with Roald Amundsen and Douglas Mawson's empirical studies of the magnetic poles and the setting of the stage for 20th-century investigations.

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During development of the Standard Lithuanian language at the end of the 19th century, the dialectal basis was chosen first, and the orthography varied yet for another twenty years. This article analyses the dual orthography – of books and personal orthography of their authors. The study is designed to find out whether the books published during that period reflect the orthographic model chosen by their authors; what factors, in addition to the author’s choice, may have influenced the orthography of the books.The influence of printers on the orthography of books during that period was smaller than before, as many authors did the proofreading themselves. Thus, printers were able to change the orthography in cases where books were printed without the author’s knowledge or consent, such as prayer books. If the author chose unusual, rare, or even self-invented characters, a limited inventory of prints could be a serious obstacle to keep their orthography in the book. As the case of Jonas Basanavičius shows, even when the author offered to finance the acquisition of the necessary prints, this was not necessarily done.At the end of the 19th century, books were published as supplements to periodicals. The editors of newspapers Ūkininkas and Tėvynės sargas adapted the orthography of such books to their periodicals. Under the terms of the press ban, it was often important for authors just to print a book, and the spelling model was chosen by the publisher. However, authors such as Basanavičius, who considered themselves the creators of the standard language, took care to present their chosen or created model of orthography in their books as well.As the cases of Liudvika Didžiulienė, Dominykas Tumėnas and Basanavičius show, two orthographic standards emerged during the research period: correspondence was written one way and books were printed another. Hence, it is not always possible to judge the orthographic model chosen by the authors in books published at the end of the 19th century and the early 20th century.

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This paper aims to describe and explain the beginning and evolution of cost accounting in Spain through the examination of accounting texts. In this evolution, three periods are distinguished: the late 19th century, the first half of the 20th century, and 1951–1978. In 1978, the official standardization of Spanish cost accounting occurred. Cost accounting first appeared in Spanish texts at the start of the 20th century. However, in 19th century accounting treatises can be found references to some aspects of cost accounting to which the paper refers. The traditional orientation of authors in the second period clearly reflects a monistic recording pattern, i.e., that cost accounting in combination with general accounting forms a hom*ogeneous whole, with full-cost allocation on the basis of historical costs. The small differences found among these authors relate to a large extent to the fixed-costs allocation. This period corresponds to the introduction into Spain of the Central European school of accounting thought represented by Pedersen, Schmalenbach, Palle Hansen, and, above all, by Schneider. This influence intensified from 1951 onward. In the second half of the 20th century, German thought shared influence with American thought represented in the works of Kester, Horngren, Lang, Lawrence, Neuner, etc. The French Accounting Plan (General Chart of Accounts), published in 1957, also had an obvious influence on Spanish accounting scholars of this time. This influence is clearly shown in the Spanish standardization of cost accounting published in 1978 as part of the first Plan General de Contabilidad (General Accounting Plan) passed in 1973.

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The article is devoted to the research of I. N. Mamkina and A.V. Blinov “Regional models of education management in Imperial Russia: Siberian version”. The monograph presents the results of the authors' work on the problem of organizing the management of the education system in the Eastern suburbs of the Russian Empire in the context of the development of the General Imperial district management model. Stages and adaptations of forms and methods of management in special Siberian conditions are revealed. The evolution of the formation of the Kazan educational circle is shown, the experience of transferring educational institutions under the control of the provincial government, and the features of regional education management in Western and Eastern Siberia are considered.

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Object Concussion is the signature American football injury of the 21st century. Modern varsity helmets, as compared with vintage leather helmets, or “leatherheads,” are widely believed to universally improve protection by reducing head impact doses and head injury risk for the 3 million young football players in the US. The object of this study was to compare the head impact doses and injury risks with 11 widely used 21st century varsity helmets and 2 early 20th century leatherheads and to hypothesize what the results might mean for children wearing similar varsity helmets. Methods In an injury biomechanics laboratory, the authors conducted front, oblique front, lateral, oblique rear, and rear head impact tests at 5.0 m/second using helmeted headforms, inducing near- and subconcussive head impact doses on par with approximately the 95th percentile of on-field collision severity. They also calculated impact dose injury risk parameters common to laboratory and on-field traumatic neuromechanics: linear acceleration, angular acceleration, angular velocity, Gadd Severity Index, diffuse axonal injury, acute subdural hematoma, and brain contusion. Results In many instances the head impact doses and head injury risks while wearing vintage leatherheads were comparable to or better than those while wearing several widely used 21st century varsity helmets. Conclusions The authors do not advocate reverting to leather headgear, but they do strongly recommend, especially for young players, instituting helmet safety designs and testing standards, which encourage the minimization of linear and angular impact doses and injury risks in near- and subconcussive head impacts.

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Comparative education as a pedagogical subdiscipline has developed in Poland in close connection with the history of education from the very beginning. The paper analyzes the main publications of leading Polish pedagogues of the 20th century, and the research has been based on source analysis. The aim of the paper is to present the achievements of Polish comparativists of 20th century and their contribution to the development of comparative education as a global field of research. The authors attempt to answer the question concerning the political context of Polish 20th century education comparativists' work, as scientific activity in Middle and Eastern Europe after World War II was strongly involved in political and. ideological terms. The result of the research is an indication of the participation of Polish pedagogues in an international community of researchers and Polish contribution to the development of comparative pedagogy as a scientific discipline.

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The article focuses on the representation of Ukrainian topics in Slovak journals, mainly in “Hlas” (‘Voice’). This periodical had a subtitle “Mesačník pre literatúru, politika a sociálne otázky” (Monthly on literature, politics and social issues) and appeared in 1898–1904. “Hlas” is considered to be the publishing platform of liberally oriented Slovak youth, who opposed the conservative policy of the Center of National Life in Martin, led by S. H. Vajanský. Just as with other key ideological issues (Czechoslovakism, Russophilism, political activity), Vajanský’s reception and understanding of Ukrainian issues significantly differed from those of the younger generation. ‘Ukrainian theme’ usually got into the journal “Hlas” indirectly, through the links to ‘Slovanský přehled’ (‘Slavic Review’) journal. “Hlas” paid considerable attention to social problems. Such issues as migration, the influence of magyarization on the educational system and level of literacy among ‘rusyns’ were often addressed with a help of statistical data. The periodical provided information on the current challenges of Ukrainian students and some translations of works by Ukrainian authors. For instance, in 1903 “Hlas” published “Nastia” by B. Lepkyi. The translator of the text F. Votruba was among the most active promotors of Ukrainian literature. The references to outstanding Ukrainian cultural figures, such as Taras Shevchenko, Ivan Franko, Volodymyr Hnatiuk, etc., are also worth to mention. A detailed analysis of the content of “Hlas” revealed that the journal gave a low priority to ‘Ukrainian issues’. Most of the relevant information was taken from the other journals. The appearance of original material or translations to a large extent was driven by the personal interests of individual authors.

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Based on historical, pedagogical and archival sources, the article analysed the state of national schools and the problem of training of pedagogical personnel in Kazakhstan in the 20-30 years of the 20 century. The authors reveal difficult and contradictory conditions for the formation and development of national schools in the early years of Soviet power. The general difficulties in the organization and operation of national schools were the weak educational and methodological provision of education in the native language for students, the scarce educational and material base and the acute shortage of national pedagogical personnel. The article highlights the development of the ethnic component in the content of the education of national schools and in the system of teacher training, as well as the problem of their educational provision. The authors of the article analyzed archival sources, which contain information on the content of teacher training for national schools KazPI named after Abai, the first forge of pedagogical personnel with higher education, described the network of training of national pedagogical personnel in Kazakhstan and beyond in the 20th30th years of the 20 century.

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Based on historical, pedagogical and archival sources, the article analysed the state of national schools and the problem of training of pedagogical personnel in Kazakhstan in the 20-30 years of the 20 century. The authors reveal difficult and contradictory conditions for the formation and development of national schools in the early years of Soviet power. The general difficulties in the organization and operation of national schools were the weak educational and methodological provision of education in the native language for students, the scarce educational and material base and the acute shortage of national pedagogical personnel. The article highlights the development of the ethnic component in the content of the education of national schools and in the system of teacher training, as well as the problem of their educational provision. The authors of the article analyzed archival sources, which contain information on the content of teacher training for national schools KazPI named after Abai, the first forge of pedagogical personnel with higher education, described the network of training of national pedagogical personnel in Kazakhstan and beyond in the 20th30th years of the 20 century.

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The article deals with the process of transformation of the old handwritten tradition of describing Paskhaliya into a printed one. Understanding the calculations of the day of Easter was important for the daily life of the population of Ancient Rus, and therefore Old Russian writers paid attention to describing the rules of Easter calculations. For a long time, these descriptions took the form of handwritten manuscripts. After the reforms of Peter the Great in Russia, works of this genre began to take the form of printed editions. The authors aim to consider the features of the transformation of the handwritten manuscripts into modern books. As part of study, it has been found that the descriptions of Paskhaliya, published in the typographic way first, tried to repeat the handwritten samples, but then began to turn into popular descriptions of the rules for calculating Easter. Moreover, the authors of these writings looked to the development of new ways of calculating the dates of the Easter celebration. It has been linked to the fact that after the authors-priests (18th century), secular writers (journalists, officials, officers, etc.) joined the genre of describing Paskhaliya in the first half of the 19th century. The way of transformation of Paskhalistics into an entertaining genre of popular-science literature became likely, but in the second half of the 19th century the representatives of academic science restored the scientific status of this field of knowledge. At present, the achievements of the science of Paskhaliya have become an important element in the study of the chronology of ancient Russian history. In modern science, studying the history of timekeeping, Paskhalistics became one of the necessary elements for studying the chronology of ancient Russian history. It can be recognized that the printed editions of Paskhaliya played an important role in the development of modern chronological science.

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This paper deals with cross-disciplinary historical and geographical research. The Ural-Caspian Region existing from the 16th century to the beginning of the 20th century is its main focus. The Assessment of new lands inclusion in the Russian civilization is carried out. The authors analyze the Ural-Caspian Region through assessment of dynamics of its cultural landscapes. The social processes happening in the region are characterized. The authors suggest considering the Ural-Caspian Region as a frontier, existing from the 16th century to the beginning of the 20th century. Ethno cultural space structure mosaicity, original culture of the Cossacks and the zone with special social conditions were characteristics of the Russian and Nogai cultures assimilation at the early stage of the development. The Orenburg Region with its creeping-away regional identity is the only outlier of the Ural-Caspian Region. In its population historical memory it is possible to find five spatial images of the Orenburg Region: base to Central Asia, citadel of "civilization", testing ground for reforms, operation object with huge resources and the deaf province.

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The author of the article puts a question about the limits of the 20th century individualism. He expresses a hypothesis about the cyclic nature of the cultural and political theory. In particular, he draws attention to the rhythm of changes of the hedonistic and ascetic ep- ochs, spiritualist and materialist epochs, individualist and holist epochs. The author ana- lyzes holistic doctrines of the 19th century: philosophies of Fabre d’Olivet, Auguste Comte, Pierre Leroux. Although today almost forgotten, the ideas of these authors can be revived again in the 21st century, he says. Based upon the analysis of the 19th century holism which the author did in his book Liquid ideologies, the author makes a hypothesis that the 21st century is becoming much less individualistic and much less materialistic than the 20th century. The metaphors of the “collective body” and “absolute spirit” are coming back in the 21st century, in the new form of the digital reality.

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The relevance of the problem under study is due to the fact that the Muslim community of our region today, as at the beginning of the 20th century, is at an important stage in the transformation of public life. The article is aimed at illustrating the important role of the first Tatar newspapers and magazines in discussing the burning problems of the Ummah, using the examples of publications by Tatar authors of the early 20th century. After a thematic analysis of the articles and classification of theological issues raised by the authors, we can see that there was a plurality of solutions to various problems that were proposed during the discussions. This experience in the field of society reform and the search for effective solutions to the problems facing the Muslim community is extremely important today and can be useful for religious leaders, teachers of Islamic religious educational institutions.

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The authors summarize the academic legacy of late Oktawiusz Jurewicz and his role as a leading Polish byzantinist of the second half of the 20th century. The text is supplemented by the detailed and updated bibliography of Jurewicz.

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AbstractThis article introduces a special issue on Ukrainian statehood. Based on the conference “A Century of Ukrainian Statehoods: 1917 and Beyond” at the University of Toronto, the special issue examines the relationship between the Ukrainian Revolution of 1917–1920 and the Soviet Ukrainian state over the long term. The authors survey the history of the Ukrainian SSR and propose two points of emphasis: the need to study the promises of “national” and “social” liberation in tandem and the persistent presence of an “internal other” in Soviet Ukrainian history.

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Utopias are often looked upon as a positive phenomenon stimulating human thinking and imagination. This could not be denied. Although when morality is treated just as a tool to achieve generous intentions, realization of utopias is usually followed by different social repressions. A good deal of research has been done on utopian societies. But most often such works are merely focussed on the subjects of innovation, imagination and tangibility. In research works by western as well as soviet authors certain idealization of the research object can be felt, and the issues of social utopias are rarely discussed. These questions are worth reviewing on a broader scale. The present work focusses on the aspects of communist (socialist) utopian ethics and its links with modernism. It is important to compare ethical differences of architectural utopias that existed in West European and soviet spaces. The present text is a part of a wider research on structuralistic ideas in contemporary Lithuanian architecture. The author thinks such a review may help to develop more precise understanding of the development peculiarities of humanistic ideas in architecture of the 20th century in our country. XX a. architektūros utopijų etiniai aspektai Santrauka Dažnai laikomasi nuostatos, kad utopija teigiamas, žmogaus mąstymą ir vaizduotę skatinantis reiškinys. Su tuo negalima nesutikti. Tačiau kai moralumą imama traktuoti kaip kilnių tikslų įrankį, utopijos įgyvendinimą neretai ima lydėti įvairios socialinės represijos. Utopinių visuomenių tyrimų gausu. Tačiau juose dažniau nagrinėjamos novacijų, vaizduotės, realumo temos. Vakarų bei sovietinių autorių darbuose neretai jaučiamas tiriamojo objekto idealizavimas, retai svarstomi socialiniai utopijų klausimai. Juos tikslinga apžvelgti plačiau. Darbe dėmesys telkiamas ties komunistinės (socialistinės) utopijos etikos aspektais bei šios utopijos sąsajomis su modernizmu. Svarbu palyginti Vakarų Europos bei sovietinėje erdvėse gyvavusių architektūros utopijų etinius skirtumus. Šis tekstas yra platesnio tyrimo apie struktūralistines idėjas šiuolaikinėje Lietuvos architektūroje dalis. Manoma, kad tokia apžvalga padės tiksliau suvokti XX a. humanistinių architektūros idėjų raidos savitumus mūsų šalyje.

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Stereotactic neurosurgery has a rich history, beginning with the first stereotactic frame described by Horsley and Clarke in 1908. It is now widely used for delivery of radiation, surgical targeting of electrodes, and resection to treat tumors, epilepsy, vascular malformations, and pain syndromes. These treatments are now available due to the pioneering efforts of neurosurgeons and scientists in the beginning of the 20th century. Their efforts focused on the development of stereotactic instruments for accurate lesion targeting. In this paper, the authors review the history of the stereotactic apparatus in the early 20th century, with a focus on the fascinating people key to its development.

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This article examines the fortunes of one particular surgical innovation in the treatment of gallstones in the late 20th century; the percutaneous cholecystolithotomy (PCCL). This was an experimental procedure which was trialled and developed in the early days of minimally invasive surgery and one which fairly rapidly fell out of favour. Using diverse research methods from textual analysis to oral history to re-enactment, the authors explore the rise and fall of the PCCL demonstrating that such apparent failures are as crucial a part of innovation histories as the triumphs and have much light to shed on the development of surgery more generally.

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Poetry of the Ugandans are analysed in an article in the context of the use of devices of comic in the East African English-language poetry. The critical-realistic and enlightener tendencies that were eagerly apprehended by most East African authors in the 1960s have not allowed them going beyond the direct criticism of damning poetry to this day as well, although point-by-point attempts to use humour and satire when contemplating socio-political issues, do occur throughout the sixty-year existence of East Africa English-language poetry. The dilogy by Okot p’Bitek, Timothy Wangusa and Taban Lo Liyong are clear examples of such attempts made in Uganda literature. At the same time, the three authors use fundamentally different techniques of comic, when portraying modern reality, both purely African and universal human.

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Abstract The present paper concerns the concept of ‘the Polish School of Composition’, well established in writings on music composed in the 2nd half of the 20th century, but still resisting attempts to define it clearly. I sum up the ways authors have talked about the Polish School of Composition to date, both from the internal (Polish) and external (foreign) points of view. I also examine the musical differentia specifica (such as aspects of style, composition technique and expression in works associated with this phenomenon) and the extramusical (mostly social and political) contexts which have determined the evolving approaches to the phenomenon in question. I begin with the origin of the term itself and discuss its subsequent interpretations until the present. From this perspective, the Polish School of Composition appears to be a kind of mythic narrative, a proposed way of ordering and understanding the past realities, transcending the categories of truth and falsehood, and working primarily in the sphere of emotions.

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The review touches upon the problems, which are formulated and solved by the group of authors in the scientifi c study “From Chekhov to Brodsky: Aesthetic and Philosophical Aspects of Russian Literature of the 20th Century”. The importance of scientifi c research, originality, well-based arguments of the authors position, the value and novelty of material are underlined in the review.

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The revitalization is one of the most essential processes associated with transformations of urban structures in the 20th and 21st centuries. Revitalization actions, carried out in Polish cities at the beginning of the 21st century, concern mainly postindustrial areas and buildings. The most known revitalization operations in Poland have been carried out in Lodz and Poznan. The authors of the article will present analyses concerning revitalization problems of some old factories in Bialystok – former significant centre of the textile industry in Poland in the end of 19th and first half of the 20th century. The authors will present significant architectural, spatial and economical effects of such transformations. The research was carried out in the frame of scientific project No. S/WA/2/2016 at the Bialystok University of Technology, Faculty of Architecture and financed from science research sources by Polish Ministry of Science and Higher Education.

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Purpose The aim of this study is to explore the attempts by early twentieth century cyclecar manufacturers in the UK and USA to segment the personal transportation market and to position early cyclecars through the development of unique product attributes and advertising. More specifically, the authors speculate about early twentieth century British cyclecar marketing strategies that implicitly recognized a sports car segment and positioned cyclecar brands to meet the needs of that segment. Design/methodology/approach The primary source material for this research is a sample of 205 print ads and articles from the early twentieth century (1912-1921) specialty magazines devoted to cyclecars in the UK and USA. We combine the content analysis of the sample of ads with a critical reading and interpretation of a sub-sample of those same ads. Findings Between 1910 and 1921, a new form of personal transportation was developed that combined the technology of motorcycles with the utility of automobiles. Known as “cyclecars”, these vehicles were typically constructed from off-the-shelf motorcycle parts and assembled in small batches by a myriad of manufacturers. Current scholarship suggests that the cyclecar craze of the 1910s ended with the introduction of low cost “real” automobiles such as the Ford Model T, Austin 7 and Morris Oxford. We use the content analysis of cyclecar advertisem*nts to construct a brand-positioning map of this emerging segment of the transportation market. We argue that while the core cyclecar positioning was in direct competition with small economically positioned cars such as the Ford Model T, a significant part of the market, primarily centered in the UK, could be considered as for sports cars. That segment of the cyclecar market, along with the development of cyclecars into urban delivery vehicles, continued over time and has re-emerged today in a range of three-wheeled sports cars, including the updating and continuation of the British Morgan 3 Wheeler model which was launched during the heyday of cyclecars. Research limitations/implications The authors can only speculate about the impact of the Ford Model T in this study. Further research on that issue is needed. Originality/value This is the first historical study of cyclecar marketing. Most of what little has been published about cyclecars focuses on their design and technology.

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The term effendiyya (singular: effendi) appears in many articles and books on the social and political history of the Middle East between the end of the 19th century and the first half of the 20th century. Many authors have made use of this term, but very few have paused to discuss its meaning. At least one important scholar, however, raised doubts about its usefulness.

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This may well be the first article about the history of mixed Russian-Chinese families in Russia and the USSR. The study is based on sources in federal, regional and local archives, mainly of Siberia and the Far East, statistics, and the press. It notes that the great gender imbalance in almost exclusively male Chinese migrant community meant that Chinese men chose Russian women as life partners. The decline of Russia’s male population during the First World War and the Civil War only exacerbated this trend. First recorded in the late nineteenth century, this phenomenon became widespread during the twentieth, not only in the Far East, but also in other areas with large populations of Chinese workers, such as Donbass. Wives in such marriages were mainly peasant women, although on occasion Cossack women and even noblewomen, often widows, took Chinese husbands. The brides were invariably younger than their spouses and tended to be housewives. However, some worked with their husbands in small businesses. These mixed couples tended to have fewer children than those that were fully Russian. The vagaries of Sino-Soviet relations during the twentieth century led to several waves of deportations of such families. Thus, in 1938 some were exiled from their places of residence to Xinjiang, Kazakhstan or the Amur region. While forced migrations considerably reduced the size of the Chinese community, they did not destroy it. The authors conclude that new Chinese immigration to Post-Soviet Russia follows the pattern set in the twentieth century’s first half, as do mixed marriages.

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The historical study of modern Orthodox theology is a very important process, which is only now finding its place in science. Orthodox dogmatic theology can only seem static, while a closer examination can reveal the processes of decomposition, change and mutation. This article analyzes the theological history of the organic atonement theory, with Vladimir Lossky as its main advocate. The appearance of several atonement theories in theology (along with the criticism of legal theory – a traditional theory peculiar to academic education) highlights the reasons leading to such an unusual state of affairs. In the author’s opinion, this situation is one of the indicators for the changes in theology under the influence of new philosophical trends. The links between the organic atonement theory and philosophical research were noticed as early as in the 20th century. However, the issue has been still insufficiently explored. In connection with this, one of the objectives in this article is a thorough consideration of the way the Russian religious thought participated in the development of the 20th-century Orthodox theology. The largest school of religious philosophy at the beginning of the 20th century was the philosophy of unitotality, which was supported by many famous authors, including theologicians Sergei Bulgakov, Lev Karsavin, Sergei and Evgenii Trubetskoy, Vladimir Ern, Pavel Florensky, et al. The Russian philosopher Vladimir Solovyov was the initiator of this movement. The thinkers mentioned above and the authors of “organic” theology (in particular, Lossky and Georges Florovsky) are linked not only by their biographies, but also by common themes, methodological guidelines and objects of criticism. Thus, one of the key features of the “organic” atonement theory is the idea that Jesus Christ adopted the common human nature, and it exists as real and integrated in every single human hypostasis. In the author’s opinion, this viewpoint is not specific to Russian Orthodox theology before the 20th century. It was indeed inspired by the philosophy contemporary to Lossky. We can find the same ideas in the works by Karsavin and archpriest Bulgakov, whose teachings influenced Lossky’s views. At the same time, Lossky tried to dissociate himself from philosophy and remain a theologician. However, the author undertakes to demonstrate that not all of his resources are in the patristic tradition. In this regard, we cannot speak about imitation. On the contrary, we discuss the unconscious adoption of some topics, images and methodological techniques by Lossky from his opponents and teachers.

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Abstract Throughout the 20th century, Byzantine music theory was a constant preoccupation of chanters, teachers and musicians, who contributed to the development of this field and to the publication of a significant number of books in the Romanian language. The paper addresses these theoretical contributions based on several key elements: conception, structure, content, vocabulary, musical exercises and examples, extension, graphic aspect, relevance in the era –, but also in the context of the development of a specialized literature in Romanian. The analysis of these books reveals that everything that was published in Romania in the 20th century in the field of psaltic theory remains within the confines of the Byzantine tradition, faithfully passed down to the modern era. At the same time, the changes that the Romanian society went through in the second half of the century influenced the manner of approach to the theoretical notions, which were treated in the light of staff notation and Western music theory. However, over the course of the 20th century, successive authors managed to develop a specialized terminology in Romanian and to transmit the notional content specific to the Byzantine tradition.

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The article deals with the activities of the parochial schools in the Yakut region in the second half 19th - early 20th century as the region’s main primary schools. The authors consider the effect of the climate and the local population’s living conditions to explain the slow growth of these schools. Among other, it also discusses disagreements between the region’s secular and spiritual authorities about education, as well as how the institutions were financed. It argues the teachers, as members of the intelligentsia, were Yakutia’s intellectual elites, which enabled them to influence public opinion. Their educational activities, involvement in academic research, journalism and art significantly enriched the region’s intellectual life. The authors conclude that parochial schools enabled the population to receive primary education, as well as the possibility of further study. Both secular and religious educators contributed to the formation of the intelligentsia nationally and the integration of the Yakut periphery into the empire.

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The article analyses the image of the town Truskawiec as a famous balneological resort as seen from the perspective of tourist guides and health resort guides from the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. The authors of the guides were usually experienced doctorsbalneologists, developing their practices over a long period of time in Truskawiec. For this reason they possessed considerable and through knowledge regarding the medical infrastructure of the town. The article focuses on the characteristic of the main editions of the guides, the contents of which include relevant information allowing the analysis of selected aspects of the mobility of the Galician society at the and of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century. Apart from the issues related to the translocation of population, they shed light on the development of tourism in the country.

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AbstractAs the world enters the last decade of the 20th Century, there is a great deal of speculation about the effect of computers on the future delivery of health care. In this article, the authors attempt to identify some of the evolving computer technologies and anticipate what effect they will have by the year 2000. Rather than listing potential accomplishments, each of the affected areas: hardware, software, health care systems and communications, are presented in an evolutionary manner so the reader can better appreciate where we have been and where we are going.

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Abstract Taking the examples of the pioneers Carl Ludwig Schleich, Carl Koller, and Heinrich Braun, this article provides a first exploratory account of the history of anesthesiology and the Nobel Prize for physiology or medicine. Besides the files collected at the Nobel Archive in Sweden, which are presented here for the first time, this article is based on medical literature of the early 20th century. Using Nobel Prize nominations and Nobel committee reports as points of departure, the authors discuss why no anesthesia pioneer has received this coveted trophy. These documents offer a new perspective to explore and to better understand aspects of the history of anesthesiology in the first half of the 20th century.

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The first decade of the 20th century was a period of huge advances and expansion in the Latvian translation scene. New, contemporary authors’ works became available to Latvian readers. The Latvian readership was consciously being integrated into general European literary trends. It was also a heyday of periodicals that published numerous translations, including numerous novels. There are countless parallel translations even reaching double digits. Translations included various genres and the traditional Latvian interest in plays was obvious. German was gradually losing its dominant positions as both a source and intermediate language, Russian was advancing. This period also saw a change of generations among translators, and with the new generation women became visible in translation scene. Practically all Latvian writers were also active translators. The translation method changed from localisation to a fidelity mode with a tendency towards foreignisation. Frequently translations now had prefaces and explanations by the translators. Translated literature now ranged from serious classical works to modern ones and from pulp literature to high quality creations. The quality of translations was also very varied. The expansion of translation and the cultivation of new domains went hand in hand with the development of the Latvian language itself.

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Expressive buildings based on curvilinear geometry became one of many characteristic elements of contemporary architecture. A fascination with irregular, undulating forms has already been visible in the 20th century. However, the sources of the undulating motifs go back to the Baroque period, when buildings with curved façades were one of the best examples of the natural development of architectural thought. The evolution of this idea took place at the beginning of the 20th century. In the following years, the motif of the undulating lines was used by many architects who draw upon its regular or free character. The Authors using the analytical and interpretative method show the evolution of the undulating wall. The Authors use the terms of curved lines defined by Kandinsky. The analysis of selected examples shows the ideological, material, and constructional evolution of the undulating wall, as well as the way of transforming the idea of the undulating line, which returns to its baroque roots, but in a more modern version.

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The links between mental illness and the creative arts, especially creative writing, are well-established, if controversial. Several studies have found more mental illness in creative writers than in control groups; few studies, however, have investigated the truly eminent, genius-level writers. To address the question of how genius-level writers compare to merely accomplished writers, two historiometric studies examined writers who won the Nobel Prize and Pulitzer Prize. Study One examined 986 20th century writers, while Study Two 889 American writers from the 17th century to the present day. In both studies, both types of prize-winners were more likely to suffer from mental illness than non-winners. In addition, Nobel Prize winners were more likely to suffer from alcoholism (Study One) and experience a personal tragedy (Study Two). Implications and theoretical possibilities are discussed.

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The article discusses the coexistence of two phenomena in the drama of the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th century. By combining affect and convention, the author seeks to point out the dramatic use of the forgotten plot schemes, characters, and construction solutions, which still remain strongly preserved in the cultural memory of the viewers. These were highly characteristic of the comedy dell’arte, the Russian balagan, which was at the time regaining its popularity in Italy, as well as of the Polish fairy tale. The authors used them in order to evoke in the viewer a certain kind of affectation. This, in turn, allowed them to build ties with the audience based on completely new rules of participation, which gave rise to the theatrical phenomena characteristic of the second half of the 20th century.

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This paper outlines factors that impacted the change of demographic behavior of the rural population of the Central Black Earth Region from the middle of the 19th century to the late 20th century. Factor scores have been determined when modeling demographic processes in 1,500 rural settlements. The authors rely on a classical view that late traditional society was highly dependent on negative natural events, characterized by low migration and strong ties of birth rates with death rates. It has been shown that extraordinary positive factors (the rise of zemstvo medicine in particular) stimulated unlimited natural growth. Short-term stress factors (wars, hunger and epidemics) led to compensatory reproduction. The authors also come to a conclusion that modernized society (the latter half of the 20th century) had more complicated relations between demographic behavior factors. The evolution of modernized micro-communities (individual settlements) was subjected to a great number of nonlinear effects. The data demonstrate that the agrarian society at the time continued the move to natural growth although to a lesser extent than during the previous stages. However, the results of such an intention were largely neutralized by migration.

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The city of L’Aquila (Italy) includes a significant amount of masonry palaces erected from the middle of the 13th century up to the first half of the 20th century. This paper focuses on the seismic response of a masonry palace built during the first half of the 20th century and characterized by regularity in plan and elevation. The authors investigate the seismic response by varying a suite of modelling parameters that express the actual scatter of the mechanical properties typical of the masonry palaces erected in L’Aquila. The authors discuss the seismic performance exhibited by this building during the 2009 earthquake. Then, they assess the sensitivity of the selected building’s seismic performance via non-linear static analysis to the mechanical properties of masonry, the in-plane stiffness of the floors, and the mechanical resistance of the spandrels. The parametric analysis shows that the three variables markedly affect the shear resistance, the ultimate displacement, and the behavior factors. The fragility functions were then estimated from the results of non-linear static analysis. A significant scatter of the probability of collapse for the considered limit states reveals the limitations of typological approaches for masonry palaces.

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The city of L’Aquila (Italy) includes a significant amount of masonry palaces erected from the middle of the 13th century up to the first half of the 20th century. This paper focuses on the seismic response of a masonry palace built during the first half of the 20th century and characterized by regularity in plan and elevation. The authors investigate the seismic response by varying a suite of modelling parameters that express the actual scatter of the mechanical properties typical of the masonry palaces erected in L’Aquila. The authors discuss the seismic performance exhibited by this building during the 2009 earthquake. Then, they assess the sensitivity of the selected building’s seismic performance via non-linear static analysis to the mechanical properties of masonry, the in-plane stiffness of the floors, and the mechanical resistance of the spandrels. The parametric analysis shows that the three variables markedly affect the shear resistance, the ultimate displacement, and the behavior factors. The fragility functions were then estimated from the results of non-linear static analysis. A significant scatter of the probability of collapse for the considered limit states reveals the limitations of typological approaches for masonry palaces.